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WATER-COLOR + PASTEL

AN INTRODUCTION TO WATER-COLOR PAINTING

Although water-color painting is many centuries old, its application as we know it today is fairly recent. Used in the past by the Egyptians on papyrus and by the Chinese on silk, it gradually evolved to become an important me­dium on paper. Its original use on paper was to elaborate upon line drawings with monochromatic washes. Color followed, with the line still used for drawing and modeling of form.

It was not until Winslow Homer appeared that water color became a medium to be handled directly on the spot in a broad manner. While these early water colors were used as a means of study from nature for subsequent oils, they came to have all the power contained in the heavier oil medium. Water color continues to be a medium that lends itself readily to painting on the spot, and working directly from nature is the most vital part of learning to handle it, aside from the original intention of studying the various aspects of nature. It is only alter a long period of outdoor study that a reasonably convincing water color can be made in the studio.

If you have worked in oils, you will find the knowledge you have acquired in painting with this heavier medium very helpful in doing water colors. Experience in drawing and composition, and the training of your eye to see color, will all stand you in good stead. Now all you have to do is master the technique of handling water color!

To acquire this technique requires much practice. When working in oils you could finally arrive at the desired effect by much mixing of color, scraping the canvas for a fresh start, and making changes by the application of an opaque color over a previously painted area. Now you must work more directly. The beauty of water color lies in its fresh, transparent effect, and the approach must often be one in which the value, color, and drawing are accomplished in a single operation. However, while this is the ultimate effect you may want to achieve, a subject can be painted by sep­arating these important ingredients into progressive stages.

The paper upon which you work is also a vital factor in imparting luminosity to a water-color painting, because the whiteness of the paper showing through the transpar­ent color aids in establishing a brilliant effect.

The novice has a tendency to work with too small a brush on an equally small surface. I advise you to work with as large a brush as possible and to do your early work on a half sheet rather than a quarter sheet. This will help to prevent a niggling or timid approach; the larger brushes and working size will force you to work more broadly. Later, when you have acquired more technical facility, you can work on any size.

Sketch At All Times

The demonstrations on pages 130-136 and 168-172 show an approach in which a preliminary drawing is always stressed. As you progress you will undoubtedly want to try other methods, possibly painting a subject directly with color or combining water color with other media. You will find that water color is an excellent medium for ex­perimentation.

MATERIAL AND EQUIPMENT FOR WATER-COLOR PAINTING

Colors

If you have worked with oil colors, you should use the same selection of colors for your water-color palette. How­ever, it you are starting directly with water color I recom­mend the following palette:

Alizarin Crimson

Cadmium Yellow, Light

Cadmium Red, Light

French Ultramarine

Ivory Black

Light Red

Thalo Green

Yellow Ochre

As you work you will find that adding the following colors is helpful in attaining many elusive shades difficult to mix with the limited list above.

Burnt Sienna

Burnt Umber

Chromium Oxide Green

Cobalt Blue

Davy's Gray

Paynes Gray

Thalo Blue

Cerulean Blue

Like oil colors, water colors are made in student and professional qualities. Besides being tubed, water colors are also available in pans. Both tube and pan colors are soluble in water, but the former are more popular. You can squeeze out the amount of color necessary for the paint­ing on hand, thus insuring fresh color each time you paint.

Tube colors also allow the artist to mix large amounts of color washes in a much shorter time than do pan colors.

Accessories The Easel

For indoor work you can use a table or a drawing board to support your water-color paper. Outdoors you can use an easel that has been designed for water-color painting. You can work at it sitting or standing, and it is adjustable to any angle. Or you may prefer to work with the water-color paper tacked to a small drawing board placed in your lap or on the ground.

Another way of working is to carry two small folding stools, one to sit on and the other to support the board. I prefer to travel as lightly as possible and generally paint seated with a water-color block on my lap. This works out very well, particularly on a sunny day, because you can sit in such a position that your body casts a shadow over the paper.

The Paint Box

Select a paint box that has generous-sized compartments in which to squeeze the paint. There are several kinds of boxes available. One model holds your tubes of paint and has a lid that can be used for a palette. You can arrange your colors in various ways. If the box has a double tray or compartment for the colors, one tray can be used for the cool colors and the other for the warm colors. You may, in­stead, want to arrange colors from light to dark.

Paper

The quality of paper that you use for water-color paint­ing is most important. All-rag, hand-made paper is the best, but is fairly expensive and is becoming increasingly difficult to obtain. Many manufacturers are now produc­ing a mold-made paper to take the place of the hand-made product. However, it is still ali-rag and can take much rough handling and washing out of unwanted color.

The thickness of water-color paper is determined by the weight. Popular weights are 72-, 140-, 200-, and 300-pound, and the price increases with the weight. A 72-pound paper is rather thin but it can be used if you do not work too large. As the average sheet is 22 x 30 inches in all weights, I suggest that you quarter the sheet when using the 72-pound paper. The 140-pound weight is good for larger paintings (from one-half sheet upward) and the 200- and 300-pound weights are ideal for working on a full sheet of paper.

You can also obtain water-color paper mounted on stiff cardboard. This is an advantage in that the surface re­mains absolutely flat while you are painting.

Along with the various weights of paper, there are three different surfaces, rough, cold-pressed, and hot-pressed. The rough texture is best for your first ventures into water color. Cold-pressed paper, a smoother-textured sur­face that enables you to put in more detail, is the choice of many professional painters. Hot-pressed paper is consid­ered too slick a surface for most water-colorists. I recom­mend the rough paper for your initial efforts, because it will take much more abuse and rubbing out than the smoother cold-pressed paper.

Preparing the Paper

The paper can be fastened to the drawing board, or any rigid support, in several ways. If it is heavy enough, a thumb tack or a heavy paper clip in each corner will hold the paper to the board with a minimum amount of buck­ling.

Lighter-weight paper can be attached to your drawing board with gummed tape. First wet the paper so that it becomes limp and rests fiat on the board. Moisten the tape and apply it along the four sides of the paper, fastening it securely to the board; as the paper dries it will shrink, and when completely dry the surface will be tight and smooth. Have the board in a flat position at all times to insure the paper's drying evenly. Two-inch tape will securely hold the largest sheet of paper.

Another method of preparing a good working surface is to stretch the paper on canvas strips, a similar procedure to the one used in stretching canvas for oil painting. Select a set of strips the size you wish to work. Cut the paper with a margin of at least 1 inch around the four sides. Wet the paper thoroughly and then fasten it to the canvas stretcher with a thumb tack placed in the center of the outer edge of each side. Press thumb tacks on either side of the center tack, working toward the corners. The tacks should be placed a few inches apart, depending upon the size of the paper you are stretching. Allow the sheet to dry thor­oughly in a horizontal position before starting to work.

Paper also comes made up in pads or blocks in various sizes. While the smaller blocks are handy for outdoor sketching, the paper in the larger sizes has a tendency to buckle when moistened.

There are some fairly good student brands of inexpen­sive water-color paper on the market, along with all-rag, machine-made paper. If you cannot afford the hand-made paper, I advise you to obtain as heavy a weight and as rough a texture as possible in the all-rag, machine-made paper. If you make many corrections your water color will lose its luster, but if you work as directly as possible, with a minimum amount of superimposed washes, good results can be achieved. Since paper plays such an important part in water colors, I think it is better to economize by using inexpensive student colors rather than use a cheaper paper.

Other Equipment

You will need a container in which to carry water when working outdoors. A bottle with a large cap will answer the purpose and the cap can be used as a water cup.

A small soft sponge will be found useful for wetting large areas quickly. Save paint rags to clean the palette and wipe your brushes.

All the equipment purchased for painting outdoors can be used in the studio. However, when working indoors it is more convenient to use two containers of water. Keep one for mixing colors and the other for cleaning brushes. You can also use a much larger palette, either a white china dish or a large white pan; paintings made in the studio are generally larger than those painted out­doors, so the larger palette will prove most welcome.

Brushes

Water-color brushes come in several grades. The best are the pure red sable, and, although they are expensive, they will last a long time if you take proper care of them. Cheaper brushes can be substituted, but a poor brush lacks the necessary spring and the point tends to spread in a short time.

Whatever type you select, I suggest that you obtain numbers 4, 8, and 12. These three brushes will answer the purpose for any size you choose to work in. A flat brush of single-stroke style, either ½ or 1 inch wide, will be a useful supplement for the pointed brushes. It can be used for moistening the paper and laying large washes, and in straight painting.

Use a bristle brush for removing an unwanted passage of color. The suffer hairs of this brush will remove the paint much faster than the softer sables and will save the latter from unnecessary wear.

Sketch At All Times

Rinse your brushes thoroughly after using, squeezing out the surplus water by placing the hairs between your thumb and index finger. Reshape and place them upright in a container with the brush end up. An occasional wash­ing with a mild soap and lukewarm water will help pro­long their life. Make certain that all the soap is removed before storing brushes.

No. 1 Sable

Sable brushes will serve for most of your work.

No. 2 Flat

The 1-inch flat brush is useful for large areas and back­grounds. It will quickly moisten your paper if you prefer a preliminary wash of clear water preparatory to painting.

No. 3 Rigger

The rigger, with its chiseled edge, can depict the finest lines and sharp details.

No. 4 Round

The round bristle brush, while designed primarily for working in oil, is useful for removing unwanted areas of water color.

THE DRAWING

A medium-soft pencil can be used for the drawing pre­paratory to using water-color paints. Just how much pen­ciling is necessary depends upon the subject and your experience in drawing. Some artists use charcoal to indi­cate only the general proportions of the subject, and com­plete the drawing as they paint. Others dispense entirely with a preliminary drawing and work directly with paint.

I advise you to make a fairly comprehensive drawing in the beginning, but take care not to erase any more than necessary. The surface of the paper is easily injured by erasing, and painting over such an area will cause the paint to go on unevenly. Use a soft-soap or a kneaded eraser, taking care in the case of the latter that no grease from your fingers is transmitted to the paper. Do not attempt to shade with the pencil but do indicate the division of light and shadow by line.

A more detailed drawing is made when the subject is more involved, as shown above. A rough indication is enough for a simple subject.

HANDLING WATER COLOR

The inexperienced student often grasps the water-color brush like a pencil, completing the entire painting with­out varying his grip on the ferrule. While the brush should be held in this position for strong decisive strokes, you should practice gripping it everywhere from the base of the ferrule to the tip of the wooden handle. Notice how your stroke varies from a heavy blob to a fine hairline, and prac­tice this brush handling on scraps of paper or on the back of discarded water-color paintings. Learn how to ap­ply a flat even wash, a wash from light to dark, and one from dark to light. It is only through much practice that you will learn how to control various washes. Try tilting the board while doing a graded wash. In some instances you will tilt the board toward you, in others, away from you. Do not have the board at too acute an angle, or the wash will dry unevenly; 15 degrees should be enough.

In the beginning your washes will probably be weak. You will discover that certain colors will spread more evenly than others. Paints with much staining quality, such as Alizarin Crimson, are difficult to lay evenly. Others have a heavy sediment which appears as the wash dries, yet the effect is not unpleasant. Indeed, this effect can be used to advantage when certain textures are desired. Make notes of how various colors react when made soluble with water. You will find that some become pale or lighter almost im­mediately while others, with greater covering power, hold on to the original color tenaciously.

Blend one color, while it is still wet, into another, then add a third color to the mixture. You will soon find that a muddy effect results when too many colors are mixed to­gether. However, in all these exercises you will discover beautiful grays and pleasing color combinations. Along with the mixing of wet colors, make several flat washes, each of a separate color. Allow to dry and then paint an­other color over the previously painted wash. Note how the under-color affects the second wash. Try not to drag your strokes when applying one color over another, else you may disturb the under-color. Work quickly and di­rectly, using a full brush.

When you start painting your subject, you will find that:

1. Water-color paint should be applied at a darker or stronger intensity than oil paint, because it dries lighter. This is particularly true when working outdoors on a bright, sunny day.
   
   
2. A direct manner and a full brush are necessary to achieve the luminosity that is so important in a water color.
   
   
3. You should always mix more of a color wash than you think you will need.
   
   
4. The paper is important in creating the sparkling effect that typifies water-color painting.

LINE COMBINED WITH WATER COLOR

You can achieve pleasing effects by combining a line drawing with water color. The most popular approach is to outline the subject with black India ink. You can use a pen or a brush, but with the latter you will more easily obtain a flexible and varying line. Do not make a hard, de­tailed ink rendering of the subject. Instead, attempt to have a "lost-and-found" line with occasional heavier ac­cents. Using a pointed brush instead of a pen will help to avoid giving the rendering a stiff, rigid look and will en­able you to obtain either a thick or a thin line.

When the ink is dry, you begin to paint as you would when doing a regular water color. Sparkling effects are achieved by not slavishly filling in the inked outline but by applying the color freely, missing the outline at times and overlapping the lines occasionally. The inked drawing will keep the subject recognizable at all times.

A preliminary line drawing is especially helpful for architectural subjects. Then a tighter rendering can be made to insure that all of the necessary details are depicted. When doing such a subject, it is a good idea to use a pen.

Different-colored inks can be used for experimenting with this technique. They may not be absolutely water­proof, but occasional blurring or running of the line can add charm to the water color. A sepia-colored ink is often more harmonious than black, and you might mix black and red ink to obtain an interesting-colored outline.

Sketch At All Times

A water color that has turned out to be unsuccessful be­cause of a weak over-all effect can often be salvaged by line work. The weak areas are generally caused by faulty values, which result in their being lost in the picture. By outlining the entire painting the over-all effect is immediately strengthened. Experiment with your discarded water col­ors—you will be surprised how many can be made at least presentable.

The completed water color.

DEVELOPING THE OUTDOOR SKETCH INTO A STUDIO WATER COLOR

After you have worked directly from nature for some time, you may want to develop some of your sketches into larger paintings. You will do most of your on-the-spot work on one-quarter and one-half sheets, but it is good practice to paint on a full sheet occasionally.

I advise you to restrict your early large water-color ef­forts to the studio. You can work in a more leisurely man­ner, and the convenience of plenty of water, large mixing trays, and extra equipment allows you to concentrate on the difficult task of transferring your sketch to a more am­bitious studio painting.

Use at least a 140-pound paper—the heavier the better-when working full size. The texture can be rough or cold-pressed, depending upon the subject matter and your personal preference. Keep in mind that rough paper will take more handling and working over than smoother paper.

With your original sketch before you, start to redraw the subject on the large sheet. Do not hesitate to make any changes that you think will help strengthen the composition. Put in all the detail you feel is necessary, so that when you start to paint you can concentrate on the various color passages.

Since most water-color palettes or trays have only small wells to hold your mixed color, I suggest that you use some old saucers for mixing large washes—and again, always mix more color than you think you will use. Running short of mixed color just before a wash is completed always seems to be a student's chief difficulty, and it is almost im­possible to match an incompleted wash that has dried.

The discussion on page 219 of the difficulty of paint­ing a large picture applies equally to water color. Certain passages of color that look acceptable in the sketch often lose something when they are enlarged. A suggestive bit of color in the sketch has to be painted as a more definite statement in the larger picture.

The same goes for your drawing. A pleasing blob of color may pass for a cow in a small sketch, but some knowledge of its anatomy must be revealed when it is painted on a larger scale.

If you encounter too much difficulty working on a full sheet, a more gradual working up to a larger size may be advisable. You could do your early studio painting the same size as your sketch, and follow up by working possi­bly a third larger, then double the size, until you have attained technical competence. Then try the full-sized sheet again.

Have on hand a mat with an opening that corresponds to the size of the water color you are painting, and place it over the water color from time to time. This will give you a fresh view of the subject as well as a check on how much further to carry the painting.

Above all, try to give your studio paintings all the fresh spontaneity of an outdoor sketch.

WATER-COLOR-PAINTING HINTS

If your water color is off in value, especially if the darks are too dark, you can use opaque or casein color to cor­rect them. The dark passages can easily be lightened, but the charm of transparent water-color is lost.

I suggest that you use the unsuccessful sketch as a basis for reference. Redraw the composition in the studio and repaint the subject. Try to do this as soon as you can, while your impression of the subject is still fresh. You may be pleasantly surprised to find that your studio painting of the subject has a more "outdoor" look to it than the one made on the spot. After all, you observed the subject di­rectly from nature for several hours, and even though the spot sketch was unsuccessful you salvaged your mental ob­servations of the subject.

Use a dry brush to lift the excess color as a wash is com­pleted. This blob of excess color invariably forms when a fully saturated wash is applied. If not removed it will dry darker than the rest of the painted area.

To lighten a painted area on rough paper use a hard eraser or a piece of fine sandpaper. This method, used judi­ciously, will often give life to an area that has become dead­ened because of too many washes of color.

There is a water-color varnish that brightens areas that have become dull through excessive rubbing out and cor­recting. It dries with a sheen, but if it is used sparingly it is not very noticeable when framed behind glass.

Blocking-Out Methods

As you work with water color the problem of retaining light, intricate shapes that are surrounded by strong darks will arise. Many times it is almost impossible to paint around these light shapes, particularly if they are small. Block out these shapes with a thin solution of rubber ce­ment and a small brush before any paint is applied. When the cement is dry, paint the dark areas, letting the color cover the rubber cement. When the paint is thoroughly dry, remove the cement by rubbing it lightly with your finger. The untouched white paper will be revealed and you can paint it whatever color you wish. A commercial solution known as Maskoid is made expressly for this pur­pose and is easy to handle. If you are working on a full sheet of paper and the area to be covered is correspondingly large, you can use masking tape cut to the shape to be blocked out.

Use of a Razor Blade

A razor blade or a knife can be used to scrape sharp white lines or small shapes from a water-color painting. Telephone wires, branches of a white birch tree, seagulls in flight, are some examples of things that can be scraped from the painted surface. These implements are also useful for obtaining textural effects on casein painted on a gesso board.

Using a Wet Blotter to Retard Drying

Place on your drawing board a wet blotter the size of the paper upon which you are going to work, and tack your paper over the blotter after the pencil drawing is made. The wet blotter underneath will enable you to work and blend color on a damp surface for a much longer period. By substituting a sheet of glass, metal, or any flat nonporous material for the wood drawing board, you can keep the wet blotter moist even longer.

Angle of the Board

Do not tilt the board supporting your water color at too acute an angle when laying a color wash over a large area. Tilt the board just enough to keep the color flowing. Too much of an angle will cause the wash to dry unevenly.

Allowing for Contrast

Painting colors strongly, to allow for lightening when the water color dries, is particularly important when you are starting the painting, for the surrounding white paper makes the color appear darker in comparison.

Use of theSponge

A small sponge will be found useful for wetting the paper quickly and for covering tonal washes of color. It can also be used to sponge out cloud forms. The sky area is painted, and before drying the sponge is moistened with clean water. The cloud formation is shaped by wiping the wet sky color from the paper. Unwanted passages of color can also be removed with a sponge.

For More Luminosity

When painting a mass area, first apply the dominating color. Then, while the area is still wet, work other color into it. Far more luminosity and richer color is added to the painting through this method.

Strength Through Dry Brush

A way of strengthening the water color is to use a dry-brush technique over parts of the painting that lend them­selves to it. Foreground, foliage, and some of the shaded areas can be intensified with this technique.

Various-Sized Mats As a Picture Aid

Have mats of various sizes on hand when reviewing the results of your summer's output of water colors. Some of the more doubtful sketches may be improved by matting out a poorly painted" area, and some that are already matted may be improved by rematting. Even pictures you consider hopeless may contain areas that suggest interest­ing compositions for future studio paintings.

You may also wish to experiment with toned mats. For example, a pearl-gray mat will enhance a water color in which a considerable amount of the original white paper remains as part of the design. These white areas appear more intense, more sparkling, when surrounded by the gray mat.

Absorbent Paper Tissues

Absorbent tissues can be used for picking up blobs of excess wet color. If it is slightly moistened with clean water, the tissue can be molded into a tapering shape, to make it much handier than a sponge for removing a small amount of color.

Spattering for Textural Effect

An old toothbrush or a stiff bristle brush can be used for spatter effects. The brush is dipped into the color and a match or a penknife is pulled over the hairs. When it is used judiciously, spattering creates interesting effects. It can be done with varying effects over both wet and dry areas. Take precautions to block off with newspaper the area of your water color where spattered color is not wanted.

STUDIO SKETCHES FROM MEMORY

After you have completed a day's work of painting on the spot, try repainting the subject from memory the fol­lowing day. It should still be fresh enough in your mind's eye for you to be able to paint a quick impression of the scene. This is an excellent exercise in developing your powers of observation and you may be pleasantly surprised with the results. You need not necessarily try a large paint­ing—several small sketches will do. Omit the drawing and concentrate on the color as you remember it, applying it directly with the brush.

The "Quickie" Water Color

A variation of the exercise suggested above is a water color done in five or ten minutes. The subject can be from memory or improvised, realistic or abstract. The im­portant thing is to finish the painting in a short space of time.

Excellent sizes of paper for this exercise are 8x10 and 9x12 inches. You can use the backs of discarded water colors, cutting them down to size.

Work directly with the brush, omitting the usual pre­liminary pencil drawing. By working rapidly you will learn much about the handling of water color in a spon­taneous manner. Vary your approach—sometimes do a series of sketches in a wet technique, at other times use a dry-brush technique.

WATER-COLOR-PAINTING DEMONSTRATIONS

The three demonstrations on pages 130-136 illustrate several approaches to painting a water color. They are planned to enable you to keep the medium under control at all times. An effective way to do that is shown in the first demonstration. This method is based on the early English school of water-color painting: applying light color washes first, then working to the darker areas, and gradually arriving at the desired tones.

In the United States we have developed a more direct approach. Some of the leading water-colorists reverse the English method by starting with the dark areas first and working the lighter colors around these areas.

The first demonstration, the Lone House, illustrates an approach in which the center of interest is painted first and the sky in the latter stages. This can be done when the shape against the sky is a simple one, for then the laying of the sky color around it is not too difficult. However, when there are several shapes against the sky it is better to paint the latter first and the shapes over it. The Red Barn is an example of this procedure.

Another method is shown in Maine Boatman. Here the value ranges from light to dark and is established early by painting the sky area and then the dark foreground. The rest of the subject is painted in between these values.

The demonstration on page 168, Winter House, shows still another approach. The shadow areas form an inter­esting design and are painted first. A pattern is immedi­ately formed which reveals the distribution of the light and dark areas, suggesting the picture almost from the start.

Try all these methods; from your experiments you will develop your own style.

AN INTRODUCTION TO PASTEL PAINTING

The medium of pastel is represented by very few entries in contemporary art exhibitions. The difficulty of fixing pastel has undoubtedly contributed to its decline in pop­ularity. Pastel paintings ca n be sprayed with a special fixatif at preliminary stages to keep them from smearing, but the final stage must be left unfixed if its delicate color is to be held. This means that pastels must always be care­fully framed under glass in order to preserve them. Actu­ally, the glass is necessary to protect the surface of the pastel rather than to preserve it, for, as a medium, pastel will outlast both water color and oil.

Pastel is popular with many portrait and figure painters, as a means of making both preliminary studies and final renderings, and the student of landscape will find pastels helpful in capturing passing effects, particularly clouds and skies. It is an excellent medium for quick notes on nocturnes, water reflections, and sunlight effects.

Many artists use pastel for making sketches and studies preliminary to painting in oil. Since it is a dry medium, changes are made easily and quickly.

The color of the paper used when working with pastel is often left untouched in many areas, particularly in backgrounds. This, along with a direct handling method that reveals all the strokes of the modeling, has led many students to think of pastel as a drawing rather than a paint­ing medium. However, pastel can be applied in such a manner that all the paper is covered and a painting effect results. Despite its present lack of popularity, I suggest that you experiment with pastel. It has great possibilities and you may make the pleasant discovery that pastel is ideally suited for recording ideas that may become im­portant oil and water-color paintings.

EQUIPMENT FOR PASTEL PAINTING

While a limited palette of color can be used when working with oil or water color, a much larger assortment of colors is needed for pastels. The various grays, which are so important to the outdoor painter, are always mixed by the oil painter and water-colorist, but in pastel these vital shades are already prepared and a full assortment of grayed colors should be included.

Pastels come in sets of various sizes, from boxes of forty sticks to an elaborate chest of drawers containing over four hundred. Select a box containing at least sixty pastels to insure a range of colors for different color schemes.

Drawing Board

Your regular drawing board can be used when working with pastel. Some newspaper or extra sheets of pastel paper should be placed under the paper you are using to create a softer and somewhat yielding surface.

Paper

Pastel paper is obtainable in various colors. You can use charcoal paper or any paper that possesses a grained, textural surface to which the pastel can adhere. Do not keep your paper rolled; store it flat instead.

Rags and Chamois

Keep a soft rag handy for pastel areas that may have to be lightly rubbed down or wiped off. A chamois can be used for partially removing too heavy an accumulation of pastel. It is also useful for blending and smoothing colors.

Charcoal

Charcoal sticks can be used for the preliminary draw­ing, especially when the subject is a landscape. Details and accents can also be rendered with charcoal.

Portfolio

A portfolio is convenient for carrying pastel paper and acts as a sketching support when you are working out­doors. Have a few sheets of smooth tracing paper to put over your sketches when they are finished. Place the cov­ered sketches carefully in the portfolio and tie it securely so that there can be no movement.

Fixatif

There are especially prepared pastel fixatifs available but at best they are not too successful. Since a pastel should not be fixed at its final stage, any of the delicate colors that are added at this time are best preserved under glass. How­ever, if you do wish to fix the pastel at its completion, do not spray it too heavily. Spray it lightly a few times, allow­ing a drying interval between each fixing.

Stumps

Paper stumps come in various sizes and can be used for fine blending. Use them sparingly, because an unpleasant slick effect will result if they are used too generously.

WORKING WITH PASTELS

Pastels are available in hard, semi-hard, and soft, with the latter preferred by most artists. They are all fragile and break easily no matter how carefully you handle them, but this should not cause much concern, for work is sel­dom done with a full-sized pastel stick. A small piece af­fords more flexibility in handling; it can be used on its side for broad effects, and the tip is fine for details.

Because the set remains unbroken for so short a time, care should be taken to keep the colors in sequence. Then, when you have finished working with a broken piece, place it back in its original order.

On the following page are shown three progressive stages in the use of pastel when doing a portrait. The first stage shows the necessary outline before actual color is applied. In this demonstration a light cream paper is used and the head and its planes are roughly indicated with Light Red pastel.

The next step is to fill in the shaded area indicated in the outline. The same Light Red can be used, since it roughly corresponds with the shaded flesh tones. The area is filled in with the side of the pastel, resulting in a broad effect. At the conclusion of this stage a rough indication of the distribution of the light and shadow areas is revealed. The light area is represented by the original cream paper.

The third stage shows the head modeled completely with color. The original rough indication of shadow has been rubbed into the paper. Then, with this tone as a guide, the pastel has been applied in a direct manner. Strokes of warm and cool color are placed side by side and in some areas cross-hatched with a neutral color. Rub­bing in of color is kept to a minimum, for the vibrant quality of pastel is best expressed with short, direct strokes.

THE THREE PRINCIPAL STEPS IN MAKING A PASTEL PORTRAIT

Right: The shadow area is rubbed down with the fin­gers and the various colors are applied in short, direct strokes.

Above: the outline is made, using a warm-tone pastel.

Left: The shadow area is roughly indicated, using a pastel stick of its approxi­mate flesh tone.

USING PASTEL FOR QUICK FIGURE SKETCHING

Pastel is an excellent medium for quick, crisp color rendering of the figure. It is particularly effective for fig­ures in brightly colored costumes. The various textures, from light and shining to heavy and dull material, can be rendered quickly.

Below is shown a fifteen-minute sketch from the model. Charcoal on a gray paper was used to indicate the pose of the figure and the main lines of her costume. Color fol­lowed, applied with the flat side of the pastel.

A red conté pencil, as a preparation lor pastel, is excel­lent when outlining a nude figure. The warm red blends nicely with the subsequent layer of pastel.

The pose of the model is indi­cated with a few simple lines on a gray-toned paper.

Pastel color is quickly applied. This is a typical fifteen-min­ute sketch.

LANDSCAPE NOTES WITH PASTEL

Making landscape color notes with pastel has many ad­vantages. All you need is a pad and a small box of pastels, instead of the more cumbersome equipment needed when working with oils or even with water color or casein.

The pad you use for pastel landscape work should pre­ferably be of a tinted paper. Such pads are available and can be obtained with a variety of tints within a single pad. When sketching outdoors you can choose a color that is harmonious with the subject. The simplest procedure is not to attempt to cover an entire area of the paper but to allow the paper itself to be part of the design.

The illustration above shows a quick sketch rendered on a gray paper. As you can see, quite a bit of the original paper is uncovered, but there are enough vital color notes to serve as references for a future studio painting.

PASTEL HINTS

1. Pastel can be combined with water color, with the latter serving as an underpainting. Flat or slightly graded washes indicating the main areas of the subject can be rendered in water color on toned or white paper, and pastel then used in a direct manner until the picture is completed.
   
   
2. By using pastels in just the dark areas of the picture at the start, the general pattern of light and shade is immediately achieved.
   
   
3. If you use your fingers and thumb as an aid in blending colors, be sure they are free from grease. Try not to handle the kneaded eraser any more than necessary, as its oily content will soon leave a greasy film on your fingers.
   
   
4. A resilient and sympathetic working surface can be obtained by tacking pastel paper over a stretched canvas.
   
   
5. A sheet of water-color paper can be tinted with a colored wash preparatory to working over it in pastel.
   
   
6. Black emery paper will receive pastel very well. It is an excellent background for making notes of sunlight breaking through wooded or forest subjects.
   
   
7. Passages that have gone dull or are too dark in a water color painting can be given life and lightened by a few discreet touches of pastel. Care must be employed not to make this correcting device too obvious.
   
   
8. Heavy brown wrapping paper can be used as a substitute for the more expensive pastel paper. It possesses a good working surface and the brown color makes an excellent background. Fine sandpaper is another surface that will receive pastel very well.
   

WATER-COLOR DEMONSTRATION

Winter House

The first water-color demonstration (page 130) was painted with a limited selection of colors, eight in all.

In this demonstration an even more restricted palette is used. The entire painting is done with Yellow Ochre, Light Red, and Cobalt Blue. By mixing these three colors in various combinations all the other shades of color will be obtained. You will be surprised at the number of colors that can be mixed with so limited a palette. Actually, the three colors used correspond roughly to the primary col­ors. The Yellow Ochre and the Light Red are neutralized yellow and red primaries; Cobalt Blue is fairly close to the primary blue.

In discovering the variety of colors that can be produced by so restricted a palette, you at the same time become aware of the harmonious effect that can be achieved. This realization will bear out the statement made in Color-Mix­ing Exercises (pages 37-38) that the fewer colors used in mixing, the easier it is to obtain color harmony.

AN INTRODUCTION TO CASEIN PAINTING

Many artists are now adding the medium of casein to water color and oil, and you will probably enjoy working with it. A flexible, permanent medium, it is easy to handle and requires no reorientation in color mixing, since the same pigments are used as in the other two media. Since casein is soluble in water and is frequently used on paper, where it dries quickly with a matte-like effect, a casein painting resembles a water color when completed. When handled in a similar manner, but painted on a rigid sur­face such as gesso board, it can be varnished when finished and will then take on the appearance of an oil painting.

Placed in heavy, close-fitting frames, varnished caseins are often entered in oil exhibitions and are most difficult to distinguish from oil paintings.

Many artists use casein as a base or underpainting and then finish the painting with oil glazes. Great luminosity is achieved this way. It is important to remember, however, that a coating of casein varnish must be brushed over the casein base before oil glazing is begun. Otherwise the oil paint will sink into the casein base and a dulling of the color will eventually take place. I also advise you not to repaint with casein color after the varnish has been ap­plied, because it may flake or chip off.

Some color manufacturers state that regular retouch var­nish can be used to varnish casein paintings, but I think it is better to use a special casein varnish that is available in art supply shops.

The only medium necessary for casein color is water. Any type of brush can be used, but if you have worked in water color you will probably prefer a soft brush. Always wash the brushes immediately after use, for once the casein becomes imbedded in the hairs it is almost impossible to remove. A good idea is to have two jars of water, as you do for water-color work. One can be used for mixing and the other for keeping the brushes clean.

Any surface that is absorbent can be used. Water-color paper, illustration board, kid-finished bristol board, col­ored charcoal paper, and gesso board are all excellent. An especially prepared casein canvas can be obtained, but you can use any absorbent canvas that is not too heavily primed.

A sufficient range of colors is available to enable you to select your favorites.

Your first impression of this medium will be of its fast-drying quality. If this disturbs you, obtain a bottle of casein medium, which is mixed with water and the color.

Casein-painting demonstrations are on pages 204-209.

Casein As a Wafer Color

The simplest and most direct way of becoming familiar with casein is to use it in a manner similar to water color. Make your usual pencil drawing on a sheet of water-color paper, then squeeze the amount of color from the tube of casein that you would normally use for water color. Pro­ceed to paint by diluting the casein with water, working in a transparent manner. You will immediately discover that caseins merge, blend, and dry similarly to water colors. One important difference is that a casein painting gradu­ally becomes impervious to water after it is completed.

Casein As a Gouache

By reducing the amount of water used, an opaque effect can be had with casein. By adding white, more solidity can be achieved. Casein should not be applied too heavily at one time; rather, build up weight and opacity through suc­cessive thinly painted layers. An advantage casein colors have over the regular gouache colors is that they lose little of their intensity when drying; the darks lose hardly any. Along with using water-color paper, try painting on gesso boards and toned papers. You will be amazed at the cover­ing power of casein on the latter, no matter how dark the tone. Try designing your composition so that some areas of the toned paper remain untouched and form part of the design of the picture, as on the following two pages.

Casein As an Underpainting for Oil

Casein makes an excellent underpainting for an oil painting. Keep the underpainting on the light side, de­pending upon the oil glazes to give the full color. Varnish the surface as before, to isolate the casein base. When the varnish is dry, use your oil colors (see page 208). You can work with oil in any way you wish, but rich luminosity is best achieved by glazing. Use your copal painting medium to cut the oil color to the transparent consistency you de­sire, and apply the color with a soft sable brush. Keeping in mind that you will not achieve the color you want with the initial glaze, paint a series of glazes until you reach the depth of tone and color you are seeking. Each glaze should be allowed to dry before another is applied over it. When completed, the picture is treated as an oil painting and can be given a coat of retouch varnish followed by a final varnishing a few months later.

WORKING WITH CASEIN DIRECTLY OVER YOUR ON-THE-SPOT SKETCHES

You may find it easier to complete a casein painting in the studio if you work from penciled color notations. Write your color notes over the various areas of your on-the-spot sketch as shown below.

Cool. Dl-ue

Study your notations back in the studio. Then, as the various colors are mixed, apply them directly over the noted areas. By painting opaquely, you can gradually cover the penciled notes with the re­sults illustrated below.

Below is shown the outdoor sketch, made with block India ink ap­plied with a brush.

The ink dries rapidly, allowing you to work with casein paint directly over the inked base. The black undertone serves to establish an arrangement of the light and dark areas. Interesting color effects are achieved by applying the casein thinly in some areas and more opaquely in others.

CASEIN PAINTING HINTS

1. Heavier-painted casein areas become less absorbent and the first coat of varnish dries with more of a gloss than over the thinner, more absorbent areas. When casein has been applied with varying degrees of thickness, it may be necessary to use several coats of casein varnish to produce an even gloss on a painted surface. If you varnish the painting the first time with horizontal strokes, use vertical strokes for the second application.
   
   
2. Its great absorbent quality frequently makes casein paint useful with other techniques in other media. For example, a coating of casein white over a sheet of rough paper makes an excellent surface for dry-brush rendering.
   
   
3. A plastic spray will provide a glossy, protective coating on a finished casein painting. Place the painting in a vertical position and use a side-to-side motion, holding the spray about 12 inches away from the painted surface. Plastic spray should not be used if you intend to work with oil colors over the casein, because its ingredients are not compatible with oil.
   
   
4. After a casein painting has been allowed to dry long enough to become waterproof (about thirty days), a series of transparent casein color washes can be applied. These washes can be built up in a manner similar to the glazing of an oil painting, and a delicate luminosity can be attained by alternating washes of warm and cool color.
   
   
5. Copal painting medium will impart the highest gloss and greatest luminosity when used with oil color for glazing over an isolated casein painting.
   
   
6. There is a casein painting medium available that will fortify the adhesive quality of highly diluted color. In large areas where the color has been excessively thinned with water, a small amount can be used to restore any binding strength that may have been lost and to give a semi-gloss to the casein color. In classes in which students work on a project for some time, casein mixtures should be stored in air-tight jars.
   
   
7. Because casein colors are lime-proof, they can be used for painting murals on either wet or dry plaster walls. Casein varnish can be applied over the finished mural for temporary protection, and it will not have much effect on the matte finish that is usually desirable in a mural, because the plaster surface and the casein together have a tremendous amount of absorbency. If a slight gloss is not objectionable, regular copal or dammar varnish can be used on top of the casein varnish.
   
   
8. Since fixatif is water-repellent, it should not be used over pencil or charcoal drawings preparatory to working with casein.
   
   
9. Thinned casein color can be used in an airbrush, but be sure to clean the gun thoroughly immediately after using it.
   
   
10. If you make your pencil sketch on the spot, using a good-quality paper, you can finish it in casein color at a later date. Make color notations in pencil on the various areas of the sketch, and later, in the studio, you can paint directly over it with casein, checking the penciled notes before applying the colors. When the casein is used in a gouache style, the notes are gradually opaqued out.
    
    
11. Common heavy brown wrapping paper and black photograph-album sheets provide an inexpensive toned base for color sketches. The strong covering power of casein paint works to advantage on such a surface. Brown wrapping paper, which is available in rolls, is especially useful for working out the rough planning of large murals.

SIX BASIC RULES FOR USING CASEIN PAINT

1. Always add some water to the color.

2. Use an absorbent base to insure that the casein color adheres to the surface.

3. Do not apply the color too thickly, as it may chip or flake off.

4. You must isolate the casein sur­face with casein varnish before you begin to use oil on the paint­ing.

5. Never allow brushes to dry with casein on them.

6. Wash brushes with soap and water.

AN INTRODUCTION TO BLACK AND WHITE

Black and white, whether rendered with pencil or brush, is the most convenient medium for sketching. All the equipment you need to carry, aside from a pencil or a pen, is a sketch pad.

For general landscape sketching a medium-soft pencil can be used. All the necessary shading can be accomplished by using the pencil on a fairly smooth paper.

I suggest that you work on a 9-x-l2-inch pad. This size will allow you to produce anything from a small 2-x-3-inch compositional note to a detailed study on the full sheet. By using a smooth paper you can work faster, delineate fine details, and obtain broad, velvety black effects. In ad­dition, you will find the smooth-surfaced paper more re­ceptive to pen and ink.

The 9-x-l2 pad is recommended for recording landscape compositions, impressions, and studies, and a smaller pad that can be conveniently slipped into the pocket and car­ried at all times is useful for sketching figures. By figures I mean people at work, at play, walking, sitting, and so on. This type of sketching serves two purposes: first, the constant practice will improve your drawing; second, the figures can often be incorporated into your paintings. However incidental they may be in your painting, they will lend an authoritative note if they were originally sketched from life.

For drawing the figure in the classroom or studio, char­coal is undoubtedly the best medium for serious study. The fact that charcoal has to be sprayed with a fixatif to keep it from smearing does not make it as satisfactory a sketching medium as pencil or pen.

The following pages describe various methods of using black and white.

PEN AND INK

There are many types of nibs available today, ranging from a delicate hairline to a broad, heavy line. For out­door sketching it is awkward to carry a bottle of ink and often more difficult to find a flat area on which to rest it, so I suggest that you acquire a fountain pen with a stub or a flexible point that will enable you to draw boldly.

Fine point.

Stub point.

There are fountain pens specifically made for use with heavy black India ink, but an ordinary fountain pen with a deep blue-black ink will serve your purpose. It is only when you want to supplement the pen drawing with col­ored water-color washes that you encounter difficulty, be­cause ordinary fountain-pen ink is water-soluble and will run, while India ink is waterproof. But even this disad­vantage is turned into an advantage by many artists, who prefer the blurred line as being more "atmospheric."

You will find the pen most helpful in making small, quick sketches of figures. These sketches can be made in a small notebook that can be carried conveniently in the pocket or purse.

File these notebooks for future use—you will often find a pose in them that will fit into a picture you are compos­ing in the studio.

EXAMPLES OF PEN AND INK

Architectural subjects can be either tightly or loosely rendered with the pen.

A subject in a strong light con be quickly captured by rendering the shadow areas with all the pen lines going in the same direction.

THE FELT-TIPPED PEN

The felt-tipped pen is a recent addition to the imple­ments used in rendering black and white drawings. Orig­inally designed as a marking instrument with a heavy fell, tip, the pen has been streamlined. With a selection of in­terchangeable nibs available in various sizes and shapes, it has become a popular sketching tool. Similar to a foun­tain pen, it contains a reservoir of ink. The flow of ink is controlled and the line can be varied from a bold, broad effect to a thin, pencil-like stroke. It is my favorite draw­ing tool and many of the illustrations in this book were made with it.

The felt-tipped pen is excellent for quick sketching, and dry-brush as well as tonal effects can be obtained by using paper with a slight tooth to it. Several colored inks are available but I find black and brown the most useful.

USING THE FELT-TIPPED PEN

Subjects requiring strong shadows are excellently rendered with the felt pen.

A brief, casual pose is captured as the felt pen quickly glides over a smooth-surfaced paper.

Tonal contrasts can also be accomplished. A rough-surfaced paper is recommended for such work as an aid in controlling the light and dark tones.

THE BRUSH

Using the brush to sketch directly from nature is not as convenient as using a pencil or a fountain pen, for a bottle of ink or a tube of paint must be carried, and if paint is used, a container of water and a small mixing tray are necessary
.
I have found that it is usually worthwhile to carry the extra equipment in order to obtain preliminary sketches that can be carried further along in color upon returning to the studio. The sketch on page 191 is an excellent ex­ample. The drawing was made on the spot, using black ink, with some areas of the sketch rendered lighter by diluting the ink with water. A tonal effect was thus achieved and served as a painting base for the color, which was applied in the studio.

Using the brush on the paper without a preliminary penciled composition is also excellent practice for direct handling. The eye must carefully survey the subject and the mind determine just what is to be depicted before the brush touches the paper. A number 4 pointed sable brush will answer the purpose for most types of sketching. Make certain that the brush is thoroughly washed when you finish, for black India ink shortens the life of sable hairs.

THREE STEPS IN USING THE BRUSH FOR SKETCHING

Step 1

A light pencil indication is made of the main lines of the composition. Then, using ink or black water color, the general outline of the subject is made.

Step 2

The shading begins with brushing-in of the largest areas.

Step 3

The rest of the darks fol­low and the sketch is com­pleted when the details are rendered.

HOW TO USE BLACK AND WHITE NOTES FOR PAINTING

Black and white notes can be successfully used in the studio only after much time is spent painting directly from nature.

Many color studies must be made on the spot, with observation of the color relationship of one element to another, the atmospheric values, and the constantly chang­ing moods of nature. Color knowledge is acquired only after long study and there is no short cut possible at this stage of your painting career.

The following pages illustrate a few methods that can be applied when you are ready to work from black and white notes. The most common method is that shown on page 190, in which a drawing is made of the subject and the colors are written in the various areas. These color no­tations can be as elaborate as you wish, depending on the complexity of the subject. It is good practice to paint the subject in your studio as soon as possible. You will then still retain a visual impression of the scene that, supple­mented with your notes, will give you a better chance of turning out a successful painting.

There is no doubt that we see many subjects in which the color effect is too fleeting, even if we had our painting equipment available. This is where the use of a quick pencil sketch, with color notations, is the only means of capturing the effect.

As you use penciled notes you will undoubtedly fre­quently improvise your own color in areas that you feel will help the picture. This is a natural development to­ward creating your own distinctive interpretation of a subject.

Even the most fragmentary sketch can possess possibilities for a future studio painting. This quick sketch was made from a train window.

However, you have to return to nature for fresh ideas. When you work in full color—and you should do so when­ever possible—you will be pleasantly surprised to find that you have not painted quite all that nature has to offer.

Some subjects are difficult to paint on the spot because of weather conditions, and consequently have to be done from sketches. The sketch above was made with black ink on a white illustration board, with the ink diluted in areas where I wanted to show a tonal change. A composition showing the light and dark pattern resulted. Later, in the studio, I painted directly over the black ink with casein colors. One of the chief advantages of using casein is that its powerful covering quality takes it over the black passages with ease, com­pletely obliterating the ink wherever desired. In some areas I ap­plied the casein thinly, to allow the ink to show through where it helped the effect.

PICTURE-MAKING HINTS

Once the student has acquired the necessary technique to interpret his ideas, he should find picture-making rela­tively easy. Actually, as progress is made, the student real­izes that technique is secondary—that design or composi­tion is most important. Picture-making essentially is the design of an idea. While certain fundamental rules can be followed, such as not placing the object of interest too close to the edge of the picture, the student must work out his own compositional problems.

There is no infallible formula. The following hints, however, comprise the more obvious "do's and don'ts" of picture-making.

The distance between yourself and the subject you are sketching may vary. Generally you should be where your eyes can take in all of the subject that is to appear in your composition without your having to turn left or right. It is frequently difficult for the beginner to determine just where the foreground should start. While it should not include the immediate area in which you are standing, neither should it begin so far away that your object of interest is dwarfed. About twelve feet from where you stand is the minimum distance to form the base of your picture.

Actually, the problem should be solved in terms of what you are attempting to convey. If it is a sunny subject, you may need to employ a cast shadow at the base of the im­mediate foreground to enhance or accent the sunny effect beyond. You may be doing a vista in which most of the foreground must be omitted so that you can include all of the distant objects. A third composition may be from a hill, looking down at the subject with the foreground elimi­nated entirely.

It is only when you have been painting for quite some time that you will begin to realize that your composi­tions seem to lack impact—that they are too ordinary. That is when you will start to break all the so-called rules of composition and think in terms of design. Then you can distort shapes, transpose light and shade, invent forms, and be on your way toward being a creative artist.

The Horizontal versus the Vertical Composition

It is natural, in our way of seeing subjects, to view them automatically as horizontal compositions. Ever since the early days of mural painting, in which historic events were depicted, the horizontal shape has proved to be the most flexible. And as more action can take place on a horizontal plane, stage-settings and motion pictures have contributed to this way of seeing. Witness today's wider movie screen.

As you continue to work on panels that fit a 12-x-16-inch paint box, you become used to composing your subjects in that proportion. The panels set so conveniently in the horizontal lid lead to the overlooking of many subjects that would have greater impact in a vertical composition, and frequently the habit becomes so fixed that even when a student works at an easel he automatically fastens the canvas in a horizontal position before he starts to work.

If upright lines predominate in a subject, the compo­sition will be more easily arrived at if a vertical canvas is used. Typical, if obvious, subjects would be churches and skyscrapers. A vertical shape immediately imparts a ma­jestic feeling to your painting.

Use the view-finder described on page 80 to help you plan the shape of your composition. Later in your painting career, when you are breaking all the rules of basic com­position, you will go through the stage of using thin, elongated or extremely shallow canvases that will be a challenge to compose.

Awkward Alignment

Occasionally, in on-the-spot sketching, awkward alignments occur. The sketches above are typical of the sort of thing that should be guarded against in making a compo­sition.

Composition A shows the line of the dock even with the horizon. Lowering the horizon line a trifle would break this continuous, awkward line.

Composition B illustrates a situation in which the tree seems to be growing from the man's head! Moving the figure to one side of the tree would improve the arrange­ment.

Composition C illustrates an alignment that appears in the paintings of many students. The vertical line of the distant church is a continuation of the upright line of the shed. A more pleasing composition would result if the church were placed a bit to the left.

Composition D is an example of alignment that does not happen often in on-the-spot sketches, but does appear in studio-contrived pictures. The chances of painting a moving object, such as the sail of the boat, to line up with the cliff are extremely remote when working directly from nature. It is generally when such a composition is worked on in the studio that this continuing line occurs.

Placing a Head on the Canvas

A proven device for the placing of a head on a canvas is the "envelope fold" method. Two diagonal lines are drawn from opposite corners across the canvas. A pleas­ing arrangement is arrived at by placing the base of the chin where the diagonal lines cross, as illustrated.

Placing the Horizon Line

While important paintings have been created with the horizon line in the middle of the canvas, it is generally better to place the horizon above or below the center, to avoid monotony.

Avoiding Horizontal Lines

Too many horizontal lines create a feeling of monotony and make the subject unexciting. Below, on the left, is an example of an uninteresting series of horizontal lines that make the subject appear dull.

By destroying as many of the horizontal lines as pos­sible and accenting the angular aspect, the subject is im­mediately made more interesting. Notice how the compo­sition on the right is improved by a downward sweep of the cloud formation. Only part of the foreground appears, and the horizontal line of the distant shoreline is broken by the sailboat.

The Vital Darks

It is the placing of the dark areas in a composition that will decide whether the picture is exciting or dull.

Thumbnail Notes

Make it a habit to do several small pencil compositions of the subject before you start to paint (see Harbor Vista, page 118). They do not have to be finished or polished drawings—indeed, they can be very fragmentary. The im­portant point is that you have at least felt around for the best composition of the subject. It is possible that you will select the first sketch as the best, but you will have the satisfaction of knowing that you tried to exhaust the possibilities of the subject.

Rearranging Elements

As you progress you will feel the need of rearranging elements in the scene before you to improve the composi­tion. Do not hesitate to do so. Moving a tree in the back­ground so that it frames or accents an object of interest in the foreground will often result in a better composition. Eliminate unsightly objects. Any adjustment that will aid in producing a better picture should be made. It is through the process of rearranging and eliminating that monotony is avoided.

Painting a Complicated Subject

When attempting to paint a rather complicated sub­ject, first make a very detailed drawing on your canvas. Such preparation will help to clarify the problem. Do not be concerned if your drawing becomes too tight; as you paint you can eliminate the unnecessary details.

Repeating Elements to Guide the Eye

The spectator's eye is guided by the repetition of both shapes and colors in a painting. These elements must vary in size and should be arranged interestingly to avoid mo­notony.

The Emotional Aspect of Line

The basic use of line is illustrated above.

Arranging Line to Guide the Eye

The spectator's eye is controlled by the painter's use of line. An extreme example would be a road starting at the base of the picture and leading the eye along until it ar­rives at the center of interest. It would make this device even more obvious if a figure were walking along the road toward the center of interest. Try to make your own com­positions more subtle, but a definite arrangement must be arrived at to guide and hold the viewer's eye.

Space in a Composition

The amount of space which surrounds the objects in your composition is most important. The subject can be dwarfed by too much space, or it may give the feeling of being "hemmed in" if there is too little.

Convex and Concave Lines

Keep your lines as convex as possible to suggest strength and solidity. Concave lines weaken the structure.

White and Black

When making your thumbnail black-and-white compo­sitions, experiment with reversing the ingredients. Using black paper and white paint will make you more con­scious of the space around the objects, and a more simple, poster-like effect will result. You will also realize the im­portance of the shape areas behind the object.

Avoid Objects of Equal Size in the Vital Area

Do not have two objects of equal size occupying the main area of your canvas. One must be chosen to be the center of interest and the other subordinated to it.

Division of Space

Another monotonous division of space to be avoided is a diagonal line dividing the composition into two equal parts, as shown above.

The Decorative Vignette

The vignette is thought of as being primarily a decora­tive picture, but it is also an excellent way to practice simplified design. The vignetted edges may look casual in the finished picture, but they require planning.

Concentrating on the Center of Interest

Once you decide what is to be the center of interest in your painting make everything else subordinate to it. It may be necessary to reduce some of the secondary color areas or to modify some of the surrounding shapes. Every device possible should be used to lead the viewer to the main center of interest and to play down any disconcert­ing elements.

Simplifying the Subject

The student often reaches the stage at which he in­cludes many unnecessary details. This is permissible when doing a study of a subject for future reference. However, in the development of his studio painting from detailed studies the student often becomes over-elaborate. A good exercise is to sketch from nature, reducing the scene be­fore you to a poster-like picture. Simplify as much as pos­sible, reducing the various color tones to single flat colors. Do a series of such sketches, using the same motif. Each time you do a new one try to make it simpler than the last.

Textural Effects for Added Interest

While the art world is going through a "textural ef­fects" phase, do not allow yourself to become obsessed with creating textured surfaces for their own sake. Students too frequently concentrate on the surface effect and the more important elements of design and drawing suffer. Tex­tural effects should be considered, but only in so far as they add interest to the overall arrangement of the shapes, color, and tone.

Adding Importance to the Center of Interest

Planning your composition with a very low eye-level perspective will make the center of interest loom up ma­jestically. This arrangement is particularly effective in pictures depicting churches, monuments, public build­ings, etc.

The Relation of One Object to Another

After the main theme has been decided upon, the rela­tive importance of each object that makes up the scene before you should be considered before it is painted.

CASEIN-PAINTING DEMONSTRATIONS

Western Vista

The color plates on the opposite page show the start of a casein painting (see page 173) and the finished work.

I have chosen a grayish-green paper to work on to dem­onstrate the tremendous covering power of casein color. Although a similar effect could be obtained by using water colors mixed to an opaque consistency with white paint, the finished painting would lack the intensity of color.

Casein is also more flexible. You can start a painting using casein diluted as you would regular water col­ors, then, by using less water and more casein, attain an opaque effect.

The first stage of Western Vista illustrates this approach. After the pencil drawing is completed, casein color is ap­plied over the foreground and middle distance. The sky and the distant area are untouched, revealing the grayish-green paper.

Plenty of water is used in the initial effort, resulting in a transparent effect. Then the amount of water is gradu­ally cut down to just enough to make the casein workable, and the painting now acquires an opaque quality. How­ever, any of the transparent areas that help achieve effec­tive passages of color are left untouched.

Using this same approach, combining transparent and opaque techniques, the entire paper is covered until the painting is completed.

The colors I used for this casein painting and the one on the following pages were Alizarin Crimson, Burnt Umber, Cadmium Yellow Light, Cobalt Blue, Indian Red, Thalo Green, Yellow Ochre, Ivory Black, and Titan White.

The preliminary lay-in of casein color is started. The background is still untouched, revealing the original gray-toned surface of the paper.

The completed casein painting. 205

Seagull Cove

Seagull Cove is an example of using casein in a manner similar to an oil painter's approach to the subject. A rough penciled indication is made of the composition. This is followed by strengthening the drawing of the sub­ject with a brush, using French Ultramarine. With the same color, the water area is quickly painted in as shown in the plate below. Then, with Burnt Umber, the cliff on the left side and the house and foreground are painted in monochromatic values. The pattern of the picture imme­diately takes form when these areas are covered.

This is followed by painting the shore and the cliffs in the middle ground. All this is done in a loose manner, similar to a lay-in of an oil painting. The color plate at the top of the opposite page shows the painting at this stage.

The painting continues with the modeling of the vari­ous forms, the refinement of the color, and the addition of necessary details until the subject is complete.

You may want to experiment in obtaining an oil effect by varnishing a casein painting. Use special casein varnish, perhaps several coats to give a high gloss. Place the painting in a heavy frame, omitting a mat, and it will resemble an oil painting.

French Ultramarine is used to outline the sub­ject. Then, using the same color, the water area is painted.

The rest of the surface is quickly covered in a loose manner as shown above.

The finished painting. 207

The casein underpainting.

Finished with oil paint and glazes

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